From Apollo to Artemis: The evolution of crewed lunar missions

A bootprint on the gray surface of the Moon

Comparing crewed lunar missions

In 1969, NASA's Apollo program made history by landing the first humans on the Moon. The Apollo missions proved that sending humans to explore another celestial body was possible and inspired generations to dream bigger. More than 50 years later, the Artemis campaign is returning humans to the Moon, this time with new goals focused on developing a sustained presence on the lunar surface and preparing for future missions deeper into space.

Of the 12 crewed Apollo missions of the 1960s and 1970s, six landed successfully on the Moon. Today's Artemis campaign builds on that legacy with more ambitious plans: staying longer, learning more, and working together with international and commercial partners.

Canada's contributions

During the Apollo era, Canada played an important supporting role in different fields. Canada's involvement in Artemis is broader and multifaceted, reflecting the nation's growing expertise in space robotics, science, and astronautics. The Artemis campaign aims to build expertise for a lasting return to the Moon, planning for several crewed and uncrewed missions as well as the construction of Gateway, a space station in orbit around the Moon. Gateway will be designed to welcome crews of four astronauts at a time, who will occasionally travel to the lunar surface to conduct science and test new technologies.

Comparative table – Canada's contributions

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Contributions	Essential tracking stations and instrumentation to help monitor spacecraft and relay communications between spacecraft and Mission Control Development of the heat shield of the Command Module Eagle lunar module's landing gear for Apollo 11 Separate pressure calculations for Apollo 13 Geology training in Sudbury, Ontario, for Apollo 16 and 17	Development of Canadarm3, a cutting-edge robotic system that will service Gateway by assisting with repairs and scientific tasks. Canadarm3 was pivotal in securing a Canadian astronaut seat on the Artemis II mission, as well as on a future flight to Gateway. Active involvement of Canadian Space Agency (CSA) astronauts Jeremy Hansen, mission specialist for Artemis II, and Jenni Gibbons, official Canadian backup for the mission, in training and operations, shaping crew requirements for future Moon missions Role of capcom in support of future missions to the Moon. In parallel, scientific expertise (Jenni Gibbons) Canadian scientific expertise integrated into NASA's Artemis III Geology Team

Aldrin stands in front of the lunar module on the surface of the Moon — Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. prepares to deploy the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP) during the Apollo 11 mission. Photo credit: NASA

Artist's concept of a space station and a robotic arm, with the Moon in the background. — An artist's concept of Gateway, a space station in orbit around the Moon. (Credits: NASA, Alberto Bertolin, Bradley Reynolds)

Objectives

The Apollo and Artemis programs are both extremely ambitious, but they serve different objectives. The Apollo program achieved a historic first – sending humans to the Moon – in a context of urgency and intense pressure. The Artemis program, on the other hand, aims to develop the capability to explore the Moon in a long-term and sustainable way. With the Artemis missions, the role of human exploration will expand to include more time spent on and around the Moon as a steppingstone for future deep-space missions to Mars.

Comparative table – Objectives

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Objectives	Send humans to the Moon by the end of the 1960s and return them safely to Earth Develop the capacity to work in the unique lunar environment Land and walk on the surface of the Moon, collecting samples of rocks and soil Test and improve spacecraft systems Explore the Moon's surface with scientific instruments Drive the first lunar rovers to gather samples over longer distances Develop skills needed for future deep-space missions	Establish a long-term human presence on the surface Study the Moon's geology, resources (like water ice), and environment more deeply than before Test advanced technologies, such as new rockets, landers, and habitats for future missions to Mars Formalize international cooperation through the Artemis Accords, to ensure peaceful, safe and sustainable exploration, conducted in a transparent manner Partner with commercial companies to develop landers, logistics, and other services

Schmitt stands beside a large, split lunar boulder with the lunar surface and distant hills visible. — Astronaut Harrison Schmitt stands beside a giant split boulder on the Moon during Apollo 17. (Credit: NASA)

Seven people in warm clothing walk on rocky terrain. There are mountains in the background. — The entire Artemis II crew, including CSA and NASA backups, as well as NASA personnel during geology field training in Iceland. (Credit: NASA/Robert Markowitz)

Technology

With more than 50 years between them, Apollo and Artemis show just how far space technology has come. Artemis uses modern tools, better materials, and smarter systems to make missions safer and more effective than ever before.

In this section

Vehicles
Spacesuits

Vehicles

Rockets, spacecraft, and landers for Apollo and Artemis were each built to meet the needs of their time. Apollo missions typically lasted one to 12 days, while Artemis missions are designed to facilitate longer surface stays.

Launch rockets

Comparative table – Launch rockets

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Launch rocket	Saturn V	Space Launch System (Artemis I-III)
Propulsion	3 stages	1.5 stages
Engines	First stage: 5 F-1 engines Second stage: 5 J-2 engines Third stage: 1 J-2 engine	Core stage: 4 RS-25 engines + 2 solid rocket boosters Interim cryogenic propulsion stage: 1 RL10B-2 engine
Thrust	33.8 million newtons	39.1 million newtons
Height	110.6 m	98 m
Diameter	10.1 m	8.4 m
Loaded weight	2.9 million kg	2.6 million kg

Side-by-side comparison showing a historic Apollo program image alongside an Artemis program image. — The Apollo 11 Saturn V first stage (left) and Artemis I SLS core stage (right) in horizontal position in NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building. (Credit: NASA)

Comparison of the orange first stage of an Apollo Moon rocket and of the orange core stage of the Artemis rocket. — The Apollo 11 Saturn V first stage (left) and Artemis I SLS core stage (right) in vertical position in NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building. (Credit: NASA)

Crew modules

Comparative table – Crew modules

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Crew capsule	Command module	Orion crew module
Crew capacity	3 astronauts	4 astronauts
Habitable space	5.95 m³	9 m³
Mission duration	Up to 14 days	Up to 21 days
Power	Fuel cells	Four solar arrays housing nearly 15,000 solar cells and a tip-to-tip span of 18.6 metres when deployed
Service module	Provided electrical power, propulsion, fuel, oxygen and storage for various consumables	Built by the European Space Agency; provides electrical power, propulsion, thermal control, air and water

Side-by-side comparison of the Apollo 10 spacecraft and the Orion spacecraft. — The Apollo 10 spacecraft (left) and Artemis I's Orion capsule with its service module (right) inside NASA's Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building. (Credit: NASA)

Rovers

Comparative table – Rovers

Rovers have played and continue to play an important role in Moon exploration. Several countries are developing different types of vehicles, including Canada and its utility rover, to contribute to international Moon exploration efforts.

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Rovers	Small, manually driven rovers	High-tech, longer-range vehicles, some of which can even drive themselves Other rovers will be used for transportation, logistics, science, and other operations that can be accomplished with robotic tools.

Irwin works at the Lunar Roving Vehicle on the Moon. — Astronaut James B. Irwin, lunar module pilot, works at the Lunar Roving Vehicle during the first Apollo 15 lunar surface extravehicular activity (EVA) at the Hadley-Apennine landing site. (Credit: NASA)

Two astronauts sit in a Lunar Terrain Vehicle rover on the Moon's surface. — An artist's concept design of NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle. (Credit: NASA)

Spacesuits

The Apollo program spacesuits were designed to allow astronauts to take part in short lunar missions but introduced several limitations. The Artemis program suits are designed for long-duration use and will provide astronauts with greater mobility.

Comparative table – Spacesuits

Program	Apollo	Artemis
During launch/In a crew module	Bulky, custom-fitted suits for most of the mission	Bright orange Orion Crew Survival System for launch and reentry into Earth's atmosphere during the Artemis II mission
On the Moon surface	Same suit, with added a portable life support system backpack and lunar overshoes Helmet with a protective cover with a gold visor and sunshades Basic thermal and micrometeoroid protection, but limited flexibility and resistance to lunar dust Umbilical hose connecting the suit to the spacecraft's life support system	Suits called AxEMU developed by Axiom Space More mobile and durable, designed to keep dust out of joints Better temperature management Built with adjustable components, they will fit a wider range of body shapes

Shepard stands in his spacesuit. — NASA's astronaut and Apollo 14 mission commander, Alan B. Shepard Jr., during spacesuit checks before the mission launch. (Credit: NASA)

Close-up of Jeremy Hansen, wearing his Artemis flight suit. — CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen is wearing the Orion Crew Survival System for a photo shoot. This suit is used for the launch and reentry in the atmosphere during the Artemis II mission. (Credit: NASA)

Jenni practices lunar tasks underwater in a spacesuit. — CSA astronaut Jenni Gibbons practises simulated lunar tasks underwater while wearing Axiom Space's lunar spacesuit (AxEMU). This suit will be used by astronauts during future Artemis missions while performing duties on the Moon's surface. (Credit: NASA)

Science

The scientific goals of lunar exploration have grown alongside the technology. Apollo missions collected Moon rocks and ran experiments to help us understand the Moon's history. Scientists believed that the lunar surface was devoid of water. By later re-examining rocks collected during the Apollo missions with new techniques and instruments, researchers found that there was water ice under the surface of the Moon. Artemis will build on that work with new tools and will explore new scientific avenues.

Comparative table – Science

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Projects/Experiences	Rocks and soils sampling (382 kg total) Measurements of moonquakes and surface conditions Better understanding of how the Moon was formed	Exploration of the Moon's South Pole, a region never visited by humans Plans to continue studying water ice, a key component needed for future crewed deep-space missions Plans to study the Moon's geology and environment in more detail using advanced instruments

Tara Hayden, a young lunar geology researcher from Western University in Ontario, explains how astronauts' observations and rock samples taken from the Moon's surface will advance lunar water research. Water will be critical for future missions to the Moon. (Credits: CSA, NASA, Western University, European Space Agency/Skidmore, Owings & Merrill)

Transcript

Scientific equipment deployed on the lunar surface. — Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) active seismic and central station units, with the modular equipment transporter in the background, ready for deployment on the Moon by Apollo 14 astronauts. (Credit: NASA)

Two people in protective suits stand in a simulated Moon soil “sandbox” and bury instruments under the sand. — Scientists and engineers tested NASA's Lunar Environment Monitoring Station instrument suite in a "sandbox" of simulated Moon "soil" for Artemis III. (Credit: NASA)

Crews

Who gets assigned to space missions to the Moon has also changed. In the Apollo era, astronauts were all American men, mostly military pilots. Artemis reflects a diverse, international and multidisciplinary world.

Comparative table – Crews

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Crews	All 24 astronauts who travelled to the Moon were American men. Most astronauts were military test pilots. Each mission had a Commander, a Command Module Pilot, and a Lunar Module Pilot.	Crews include women and astronauts from other countries. Team members have backgrounds in science, engineering, and piloting. Artemis II will have four astronauts: A NASA commander, Reid Wiseman, and pilot, Victor Glover (both test pilots). A NASA mission specialist, Christina Koch (scientist and engineer). CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen is also mission specialist (fighter pilot with a background in space science and physics). His colleague Jenni Gibbons is the Canadian backup astronaut (combustion scientist and engineer).

Side-by-side portrait of the Apollo 17 and Artemis II astronaut crews. — The Apollo 17 crew (left) and Artemis II crew (right) stand on their respective launch pad access arms over 50 years apart, preparing for historic Moon missions. (Credit: NASA)

Training

Training for lunar missions has always been rigorous, evolving with technology and mission goals. From practising landing manoeuvres in simulators to preparing for long‐duration spaceflight, each mission has built upon the last. Emergency drills were a priority of the Apollo program, and it is still the case for the Artemis campaign.

Comparative table – Training

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Flight operations	Full-scale Command and Lunar Module simulators to practise flight operations and emergencies at NASA's Johnson Space Center	Training with Orion simulators and digital mock ups that accurately mimic deep space systems Water landing simulations and communication failure scenarios tailored to Orion's design
Scientific training	Manual sample collection Training trips to Meteor Crater in Arizona (US), Sudbury (Canada) and volcanic regions of Hawaii (US) to learn to identify and collect rock samples in Moon like terrain	Training to run diverse experiments. Artemis II crewmembers will use wearable health monitors and radiation detectors Geology fieldwork in sites where geological and topographical features are similar to those of the Moon: Mistastin (Kamestastin) crater, Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as Iceland, to refine procedures for future lunar missions

Physical conditioning

Physical conditioning remains key to prepare for space travel and lunar surface activities, regardless of the era.

Comparative table – Physical conditioning

Program	Apollo	Artemis
Physical conditioning	Heat exposure tests and weightlessness simulations	For the Artemis II mission, training for life inside Orion's compact cabin, practising space meal preparation, exercising on a flywheel, and managing life support systems for a 10 day mission

Portrait côte à côte des équipages d'Apollo 17 et d'Artemis II. — Apollo 12 astronauts Charles Conrad Jr., Richard F. Gordon Jr., and Alan L. Bean practise water egress training in the Gulf of Mexico in 1969. (Credit: NASA)

The astronauts are in a life raft while a safety officer assists them. — The Artemis II crew, including CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen and his backup Jenni Gibbons, takes part in a recovery test off the coast of San Diego. (Credit: NASA/Ken Allen )

Jeremy Hansen's vlogs

Watch the Destination Moon, with Jeremy Hansen vlog series for a behind-the-scenes look at the mission preparation and training.

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Date modified:: 2026-01-30

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